How the Parthians Turned Retreats into Victory: Untold Stories of Guerrilla Warfare That Haunted Ancient Rome

According to the Saed News Society Service, the Parthian army was established at the onset of the Parthian Empire and operated within a feudal (tribal) structure. The organization of the Parthian military was marked by a weak central command. The Parthian army was not composed of professionally trained, cohesive, and organized units. In battles, the forces of the Parthian state were made up of soldiers who arrived at the king’s court from different corners of the empire under local nobles, remaining more loyal to their regional rulers than to the king himself. This feudal character and lack of a centralized command system significantly affected Parthian engagements with the Romans, particularly during periods of internal conflict. Many historians attribute this organizational method to the Parthians’ tribal history and nomadic, steppe-based lifestyle.

Initially, the Parthians adopted the Seleucid military approach, creating heavy infantry and organized cavalry units. One reason for this adoption was their reliance on mercenary soldiers in battle. Historical accounts mention that Mithridates I, the sixth Parthian king, credited his victories and the empire’s growing power to this strategy. However, the Parthians soon reverted to their traditional style. In this system, infantry was deployed primarily for battles in elevated terrain, while cavalry served as the core strength of the army.

The Parthian Cavalry

Parthian cavalry was divided into lightly armed spearmen and heavily armored horsemen (cataphracts). The light cavalry were among the most skilled archers of their era, while the heavy cavalry were fully armored, along with their horses. Heavy cavalry were used to break enemy lines, and the light cavalry provided ranged support. The hallmark of Parthian warfare, particularly for their light cavalry, was the “hit-and-run” tactic. If the enemy pursued or pressed forward, Parthian spearmen would feign retreat, scatter, and split into smaller units. This maneuver lured the enemy into pursuit, forcing them to chase in multiple directions. Meanwhile, the Parthian archers would fire from the rear while retreating.

As the enemy became scattered and weakened, the Parthians would turn back and launch a counterattack. The range of Parthian bows exceeded that of their opponents, allowing them to strike without retaliation. For the Romans, Parthian archery became a formidable and intimidating tactic. The effectiveness of Parthian battle methods was so notable that the Romans later tried to incorporate similar strategies in their own campaigns. Using these tactics, the Parthians secured numerous victories on the battlefield.

The Legendary Parthian Horses

The Parthians raised some of the finest horses of their time, bred in Nisa, the empire’s first capital, and surrounding regions. Heavy cavalry and their mounts were equipped with full metal armor and carried extensive weapons and gear. The Parthians specially bred horses capable of bearing this weight without compromising mobility. They attributed much of their military success to these agile, strong, and intelligent horses. Even after the decline of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanian army continued to use these exceptional horses in battle.